Archaeobotanical Evidence Research Articles

The development of crop production in the northern Horn of Africa: a review of the archaeobotanical evidence

ABSTRACT This article presents a synthesis of the hypotheses and evidence for plant domestication and the origins of agriculture in the northern Horn of Africa. To date, available archaeological data point to an introduction of agricultural practices to Ethiopia during the late Holocene, c. 1600 BC, influenced by adjacent areas including eastern Sudan, Egypt and southern Arabia. The archaeobotanical record shows that farming in the northern highlands was based on the cultivation of barley, linseed and lentils, combined with the exploitation of local wild grasses from the Panicoideae and Chloridoideae sub-families. This indicates that local populations also played a role in the development of productive activities in the region, a process that might have been in place before the arrival of the southwest Asian agricultural package. After the first millennium BC, amidst an increase in sedentary settlements in the region, new domesticated crops appeared in the archaeological record. These include exogenous crops such as emmer wheat, but also indigenous plants such as t’ef and noog, which were locally domesticated likely throughout the Pre-Aksumite period. With the rise of the Aksumite Kingdom, c. 50 BC – AD 700, the agricultural package again expanded to include of a wide range of pulses, geophytes and other economic crops. Macrobotanical remains of sorghum and finger millet also appear for the first time during this period, although this contrasts with the microbotanical record of the region, which points to an earlier presence. In the southern highlands and southwest Ethiopia, evidence of Plectranthus edulis (Vatke) Agnew (Ethiopian potato or Oromo potato) has been identified by the late first millennium BC, pointing towards an earlier domestication than previously considered. Similarly, enset and coffee remains have been documented during the early first millennium AD. Altogether, new studies are needed to confirm some of these hypotheses, as archaeobotanical studies in the northern Horn are still limited. The combination of macrobotanical and microbotanical data, along with ethnoarchaeological and experimental research programs and linguistic studies, will be of critical importance for refining our current understanding of the processes associated with plant domestication and the introduction of crop production in the region.

Agricultural innovations in the Ancient Near East and beyond

There is a rich and diverse body of research dedicated to understanding the cultural and biological processes that led to plant domestication and the development of agriculture in both the Old and New Worlds. Work continues to refine and challenge proposed models for the process of plant domestication, the likely centres of origin and subsequent spread of plant crops and agricultural innovations. This research is taking place in the light of new archaeobotanical evidence and the development and application of novel scientific techniques. As such, publications that bring together new lines of research and evidence, and how these inform our current understanding of plant domestication and agriculture, are an important resource for both specialist and non-specialist audiences.

Alteration in Plant-Based Subsistence and Its Influencing Factors from Late Neolithic to Historical Periods in Hexi Corridor, Northwestern China: Archaeobotanical Evidence

The spatio-temporal evolution of human subsistence strategies and their driving force in prehistoric Eurasia has received increasing attention with the rapid development of archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and isotopic research in recent decades, while studies focusing on the historical periods are relatively absent. In the Hexi Corridor in northwestern China, which has served as a hub for trans-Eurasian exchange since the late prehistoric period, archaeobotanical data have been reported from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, as well as sites from the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220–420 BCE) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 BCE). However, no archaeobotanical study has been conducted at sites of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), a crucial period connecting prehistoric and historical eras. In this study, we identified 32475 plant remains, including 31,463 broomcorn millets, 233 foxtail millets, and 780 weeds, from the Shuangdun North Beacon Tower (SDNBT) site of the Han Dynasty at the western end of the Hexi Corridor, suggesting that millets played a prominent part in human subsistence strategies in the area during this period. In addition, sheep, chicken, dog, horse, and rodent remains were also collected at the site. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach, we detected a remarkable change in plant-based subsistence in the ancient Hexi Corridor. Specifically, the importance of millet crops, compared with other crops (especially barley and wheat), in plant-based subsistence declined from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age; it apparently improved during the Han and Sui-Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE), when agricultural empires controlled the area, and then declined again during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties (220–581 CE) and the Song-Yuan Dynasty (960–1368 CE), when nomadic regimes controlled the area. Climate change, trans-Eurasian exchanges, and geopolitical shifts influenced the diachronic change in plant-based subsistence from the Late Neolithic to the historical periods in the Hexi Corridor.

Orphan crops of archaeology‐based crop history research

Societal Impact StatementAgrobiodiversity is central to sustainable farming worldwide. Cultivation, conservation and reintroduction of diverse plant species, including ‘forgotten’ and ‘underutilized’ crops, contribute to global agrobiodiversity, living ecosystems and sustainable food production. Such efforts benefit from traditional and historical knowledge of crop plants' evolutionary and cultural trajectories. This review is a first attempt at systematically gauging species representativeness in studies of archaeological plant remains. Results indicate that, in addition to discipline‐specific methodological sources of bias, modern agricultural biases may replicate themselves in crop history research and influence understandings of ‘forgotten crops’. Recognizing these biases is an initial stride towards rectifying them and promoting agrobiodiversity in both research and practical applications.SummarySo‐called ‘forgotten’ or ‘orphan’ crops are an important component of strategies aimed at preserving and promoting biodiversity. Knowledge of historical cultivation, usage, and geographic and evolutionary trajectories of plants, that is, crop history research, is important for the long‐term success of such efforts. However, research biases in the crops chosen for study may present hurdles. This review attempts to systematically identify patterns in crop species representativeness within archaeology‐based crop history research. A meta‐analysis and synthesis of archaeobotanical evidence (and lack thereof) is presented for 268 species known to have been cultivated for food prior to 1492 CE from the Mediterranean region to South Asia. We identified 39 genera with known crop plants in this geographical and historical context that are currently absent from its archaeobotanical record, constituting ‘orphan’ crops of archaeobotany. In addition, a worldwide synthesis of crop species studied using geometric morphometric, archaeogenetic and stable isotope analyses of archaeological plant remains is presented, and biases in the species represented in these disciplines are discussed. Both disciplinary methodological biases and economic agenda‐based biases affecting species representativeness in crop history research are apparent. This study also highlights the limited geographic diffusion of most crops and the potential for deeper historical perspectives on how crops become marginalized and ‘forgotten’.

Long-Term Responses to a 5.3-ka BP Climate Event and the Absolute Dominance of Foxtail Millet in Early Longshan (4800–4300 BP), Southern Loess Plateau, China

Abrupt climate events profoundly impact human societies, both environmentally and socially. However, existing research predominantly concentrates on immediate responses, overlooking long-term consequences. This study, centered on the Guojiazaoyuan site in the southern Loess Plateau, explores the enduring effects of a 5.3-ka BP climate event that transformed the local subsistence system. Through detailed analysis of archaeobotanical evidence, specifically floral remains dating to 4800–4300 BP obtained via flotation, significant post-event shifts in agricultural practices and food strategies are revealed. Notably, there is a clear prioritization of foxtail millet cultivation, a shift towards diversified food sources, and the introduction of new livestock. These changes represent strategic adaptations aimed at bolstering resilience and reducing vulnerability to future climatic challenges. The southern Loess Plateau developed an agricultural pattern with foxtail millet as the dominant crop, although different patterns were observed in surrounding regions during the early Longshan period (4800–4300 BP). Emphasizing the importance of a long-term perspective, particularly in agriculture and food security, the findings contribute to a broader understanding of how ancient societies coped with environmental changes. These insights are pertinent to ongoing discussions on climate resilience and sustainable agriculture.

Botanical resources and pre-Columbian subsistence in Nuevo Corinto, Costa Rica

Archaeobotanical studies are rare in Costa Rica, which has limited the knowledge regarding the management of natural resources and foodways, sociopolitical differences, ethnicity, ritual practices, and more. The present study analyzed the vegetation changes at the Nuevo Corinto archaeological site (300–1200/1300 CE). In Mound-01, a stratigraphic profile was sampled to recover phytolith microbotanical remains. The archaeobotanical evidence was first described according to the morphological attributes and identified to taxonomical affiliation. Taxa abundances were correlated with construction features (occupation floors or construction fills), and archaeological phases (La Selva, La Union, La Cabaña). A total of 35 morphotypes and 16 vegetation taxa were identified and comprised a variety of grasses, palms, herbs, trees, and crops. Although the taxa diversity was similar throughout the three archaeological phases, the data showed different patterns between the occupation floors and the construction fills. These variations were related to changes in vegetation abundance, richness, and plant uses. The phytolith results suggest the continuous management of botanical resources at Nuevo Corinto for over a thousand years. The occupation floors illustrated the change of construction materials through time. Similarly, the construction fills indicated the vegetation patterns regarding the exploitation of wild and domesticated plants.

The archaeology of pleasure: Evidence for the use of tobacco at Old Dongola in Northern Sudan (16th–19th centuries AD)

This paper presents the first evidence of tobacco seeds (Nicotiana tabacum L.) from northeastern Africa. The evidence comes from Old Dongola, the northern city-state of the Funj Kingdom in Sudan (16th–19th centuries AD). Old Dongola served as a hub for communication and a point of departure for caravans. Since 2018, we carried out large-scale systematic archaeobotanical sampling at the citadel of Old Dongola. We floated sediment samples of 1–20 L to recover botanical remains, which we later processed and identified in the archaeobotany laboratory of the University of Tübingen, Germany, based on anatomical and morphological comparisons with modern seeds from the reference collection. The team recovered a wide variety of economically important plants from this regional capital. Here we present the earliest archaeobotanical evidence for tobacco in Sudan dating to the middle of the 17th century. This research supports the hypothesis that tobacco cultivation in Sudanese Nubia began by the early part of the Funj/Ottoman period. While these results highlight the use of tobacco at Old Dongola, the pathways for the introduction of tobacco into Sudan are poorly documented, and the exact timing of the introduction and cultivation in Sudan remains a subject of lively debate.

Agricultural adaptation and resilience through climatic shifts in semi-arid India: 2000 years of archaeobotanical evidence from Vadnagar, Gujarat

The relationship between historical climate change and past agricultural production contributes to a better understanding of the impacts of projected climate change by providing empirical data for resilient human responses. This study explores the periods of dynastic transitions and crop production at the urban site of Vadnagar, in semi-arid northwest India through several climate events, generally characterised by weakening summer monsoon precipitation during the Late Holocene. Artefacts from the site present an unbroken sequence of seven successive cultures from the first century BCE to the nineteenth century CE. Archaeobotanical data indicate the sufficient water availability during the Historic and Medieval periods, allowing crop production dominated large-grained cereals (C3 plants). However, during the Post-Medieval period (ca.1300−1850 CE) a resilient crop economy based on small-grained cereals (C4 plants) dominated, representing a human adaptation to prolonged weakening of monsoonal precipitation. Isotopic and phytolith data at the site present a clear signal of changing local environmental conditions over two millennia, consistent with regional palaeoclimate records, providing and interpretive context for agricultural evidence at Vadnagar. Despite long-term reduction in summer humidity, we argue that an adaptable agricultural package coupled with suitable water management systems allowed for the resilience of the urban settlement at Vadnagar.

Pre-hispanic Datura ferox L. in the Southern Andes: archaeobotanical evidence from an Inca archaeological site at Salta, Argentina

Pre-hispanic Datura ferox L. in the Southern Andes: archaeobotanical evidence from an Inca archaeological site at Salta, Argentina

Morphometric approaches to Cannabis evolution and differentiation from archaeological sites: interpreting the archaeobotanical evidence from bronze age Haimenkou, Yunnan

AbstractCannabis grains are frequently reported from archaeological sites in Asia, and hypothesized centers of origins are China and Central Asia. Chinese early cannabis remains are often interpreted as evidence of hemp fabric production, in line with early textual evidence describing ritualistic hemp cloth use and hemp cultivation as a grain crop. Modern measurements on cannabis varieties show distinct sizes between fibre or oil/fibre and psychoactive varieties, the former having larger seeds on average than the latter. This paper reviews the current macro-botanical evidence for cannabis across East, Central and South Asia and builds a comparative framework based on modern cannabis seed measurements to help identify cannabis use in the past, through the metric analysis of archaeologically preserved seeds. Over 800 grains of cannabis were retrieved from the 2008 excavation of Haimenkou, Yunnan, Southwest China, dating to between 1650 and 400 bc. These are compared with other known archaeological cannabis and interpreted through the metric framework. This offers a basis for exploration of the seed morphometrics potential to infer cannabis cultivation and diversification in uses. At Haimenkou, cannabis seeds size mostly plot in the range of overlapping psychoactive/fibre types; we therefore suggest that the cannabis assemblage from Haimenkou is indicative of a crop beginning to undergo evolution from its early domesticated form towards a diversified crop specialized for alternative uses, including larger oilseed/fibre adapted varieties.

Sesame use in Turpan during the Tang dynasty: Evidence from the Astana Cemetery

Three concentrations of sesame seed remains have been discovered from the Astana Cemetery of Turpan, Xinjiang, China. 14C dating and unearthed documents indicate that they approximately belong to the 7th–8th centuries, which represent the earliest reliable archaeobotanical evidence of sesame in China. In addition to plant macrofossil method, pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analyses were also employed to investigate two sesame samples and characterized its special biomarkers (sesamol & sesamin & sesamolin). Based on the preserved condition and concomitantly unearthed plant remains, these sesame remains were considered to be used as cereal and/or oilseed crops and pillow fillers. Furthermore, combined with the record of unearthed documents from the Astana Cemetery, it is assumed that sesame has been extensively cultivated and used by the indigenous people during the Tang dynasty (approximately the 7th–9th centuries). This paper offers new insights into the role of sesame in the economic and social life of Turpan inhabitants.

Plants from distant places: the 1st millennium ce archaeobotanical record from Iberia

AbstractThe 1st millennium ce in the Iberian peninsula was characterized by a continuous exchange of people, goods, food, technology, etc. which led to the transformation of agriculture and the introduction of new crops there. This paper presents the archaeobotanical evidence of the plants that were introduced there during the Roman and medieval periods. Cereals such as Secale cereale (rye), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) and Oryza sativa (rice) appeared for the first time in the archaeological record together with new fruit taxa, Prunus persica (peach), Morus nigra (black mulberry), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Cydonia oblonga (quince), Mespilus germanica (medlar) and Citrus species, enriching the diet of the Iberian people. There were also fibre plants such as Cannabis sativa (hemp) that are now first recorded. The paper provides the first records of these taxa while awaiting further research that can offer more detailed information on whether some of them may also have been present in earlier periods.

Predynastic and Early Dynastic plant economy in the Nile Delta: archaeobotanical evidence from Tell el-Iswid

The large-scale excavation at the prehistoric site of Tell el-Iswid made it possible to undertake a systematic archaeobotanical study of different structures covering the Predynastic and Early Dynastic period (Lower Egyptian Cultures, i.e. Buto II (3500−3300 bc) to Naqada III Culture (3300−2900 bc)). Here we present the results of the analysis of carpological remains preserved mostly in a charred state and coming from 62 samples processed by manual flotation, with total volume of 615 L and containing a total of 9,672 identifiable and quantifiable items. A further ca. 650 wood fragments (or woody vegetative remains) were subject to anthracological analysis. Besides the aim of overall characterisation and exploration of the plant economy of the site, the macrobotanical assemblages were also considered in relation to the structures from which they were uncovered. The study revealed that the agricultural economy of both studied periods relied on emmer, barley, lentils, and pea, but from Early Dynastic times onwards barley and pulses gained more importance, along with flax (Linum usitatissimum) and condiments (like Anethum graveolens and cf. Origanum sp.), which occur first during this period at the site. Together with the cultivated fields, the surrounding wetlands were also an important part of the plant resources utilized at the site. The stems of Phragmites are the most common among the anthracological remains, together with a small proportion of Tamarix and Acacia charcoal fragments. The overall composition of the plant assemblages (charred and mineralised chaff, small weed or wild growing seeds capable of passing herbivore digestion, dung fragments, awns) suggest that the major source of the retrieved plant remains was dung fuel.

Diet and subsistence in the Alps in Late Antiquity: Organic residue analysis of pottery from an upland site in the Dolomites (Busa delle Vette, Veneto, Italy)

The Busa delle Vette site was investigated as part of the UPLanD project, focused on the archaeology of pastoralism, to shed light on the lifeways of pastoral groups during the summer months. The site is composed of a hut and some enclosures located on a glacial cirque at 1850 m asl, in the Dolomites (Veneto, Italy), dating back from the Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages (5th to the 11th century CE). Initial data suggested that the hut was used by groups of shepherds for transhumance, but new evidence began to point to a possible different function.Thirty ceramic sherds of cooking pots dated to the Early Middle Ages (6th to 9th century CE), were analysed through organic residues analysis to identify their use and reconstruct the dietary habits of the people living at the site. The results of the analysis were discussed in relation to unpublished archaeozoological and archaeobotanical evidence to shed some light on the activities that were carried out in the investigated hut and the function of the site. The findings suggest that the cooking pots were mainly used to prepare soups and stews. Ruminant adipose products were identified in most of the investigated pots, sometimes associated with ruminant dairy products and millet. These data are consistent with the archaeozoological and archaeobotanical records, suggesting an intense use of this structure, not limited to seasonal pastoral practices but also associated to the mobility of troops and travellers through the local mountain passes. More research is necessary to validate this fascinating hypothesis, as comparable sites have never been identified in the Alps.

Putting the Dark Emu debate into context

ABSTRACTIn this review of the Dark Emu debate we start out by summarising Bruce Pascoe's original work and Peter Sutton and Keryn Walshe's critique. However, the majority of this contribution is to place this Australian‐focussed debate into broader conceptual, methodological and evidential contexts generally associated with the investigation of early agriculture in other parts of the world. If we are to apply the term “agriculture” to Aboriginal plant management practices, then this requires a global, rather than a continental‐centric comparative perspective. We argue debates regarding the character of plant exploitation practices on the Australian mainland, including whether they included forms of agriculture or experimental horticulture, have been hindered by a lack of terminological clarity, the absence of a methodological framework to assess empirically verifiable evidence, and – even more problematically – a lack of relevant data on the putative plants and practices involved. Here, terminology is clarified and a bottom‐up, practice‐based method is advocated for the assessment of recent (using oral, visual and written histories) and ancient (using archaeological, archaeobotanical and palaeoecological evidence) forms of food plant exploitation in Australia. The terminology and methodological framework are heuristically applied to three scenarios: (1) ethnographic and historical records for the exploitation of underground storage organs (USOs) on the Australian mainland; (2) historical documentation regarding the botany, potential human roles in dispersal, and Aboriginal exploitation of banana (Musa spp.), taro (Colocasia esculenta) and greater yam (Dioscorea alata) in northern Australia and (3) archaeobotanical evidence for the exploitation of USOs and other plants from The Top End.

Burning questions: Experiments on the effects of charring on domestic and wild sorghum

Sorghum was first domesticated approximately 6000 years ago in the eastern Sahel region of Africa, but our understanding of its agricultural history is uneven due to the paucity of the available archaeobotanical evidence. Despite growing interest in the issue, sorghum response to fire exposure has been little investigated. In this paper, the resistance of six domesticated sorghum varieties (Sorghum bicolor) and one wild specimen (Sorghum arundinaceum) to charring was evaluated under oxidising and reduced oxygen conditions using temperatures ranging from 300 °C to 500 °C for 1–8 h. The experimental study in this work indicates that the maximum temperature wild sorghum can resist without severe distortion is around 300 °C, whereas domesticated varieties could resist up to 350 °C before becoming damaged beyond identification. Our findings suggest that resistance to temperature might represent an important bias for sorghum seed preservation, both in its wild and domesticated forms.

Archaeobotanical Insights into Kañawa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) Domestication: A Rustic Seed Crop of the Andean Altiplano

Kañawa/Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) is the lesser-known cousin of the domesticated Andean pseudocereal quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). In 1970, Daniel Gade hypothesized that Andean farmers may have domesticated volunteer wild kañawa plants that occupied quinoa or potato fields after observing that they could survive harsh climatic events such as drought or frost. To revisit this question of kañawa domestication, this paper provides an overview of the current botanical, genetic, and archaeological knowledge of kañawa domestication. It then provides patterns in the presence of wild and domesticated kañawa seeds from archaeological sites in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia, spanning the Formative and Tiwanaku periods from approximately 1500 BCE to 1100 CE. This archaeobotanical evidence supports Gade’s hypothesis that kañawa was a later domesticate, not appearing until after 250 CE. Regional paleoclimatic evidence of frequent climatic fluctuations lends support to the argument that kañawa contributed to a diversified food supply, which could provide a buffer against climate risks.

Agriculture and crop dispersal in the western periphery of the Old World: the Amazigh/Berber settling of the Canary Islands (ca. 2nd–15th centuries ce)

AbstractThe Canary Islands were settled ca. 1,800 years ago by Amazigh/Berber farming populations originating in North Africa. This historical event represents the last and westernmost expansion of the Mediterranean farming package in Antiquity, and investigating it yields information about crop dispersal along the periphery of the Mediterranean world around the turn of the first millennium ce. The current study focuses on archaeobotanical evidence recorded in a series of pre-Hispanic/Amazigh sites of the Canary Islands (ca. 2nd–15th centuries ce). It offers new, unpublished archaeobotanical findings and direct radiocarbon datings of plant remains from the different islands. The general goal is to gain a better grasp of how the first settlers of the Canary Islands adapted their farming activities to the different natural conditions of each island. The results suggest a shared crop ‘package’ throughout the islands since at least the 3rd–5th centuries ce. This set of plants was likely introduced from north-western Africa and consists of Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley), Triticum durum (durum wheat), Lens culinaris (lentil), Vicia faba (broad bean), Pisum sativum (pea), and Ficus carica (fig). The crop ‘package’ probably arrived in a single episode during the initial colonisation and was not followed by any other plants. Subsequent to the initial settling and until the arrival of the European seafarers, the islands remained isolated from each other and from the outside world, a condition that over time led to a decline in crop diversity in all of the islands except Gran Canaria.

The Milky Way: Mobility and Economy at the Turn of the 3rd Millennium in Southern Central Europe

In the light of discussions surrounding the social changes attributed to the arrival of the Corded Ware culture in central Europe, here we investigate the economic strategies of one of the cultural complexes of the immediately preceding Late Neolithic. The Cham culture of southern Bavaria is characterised by a variety of economic choices but problems remain in synthesising and combining archaeozoological and archaeobotanical evidence. Using lipid residue analysis from Cham culture pottery excavated at the unenclosed settlement of Riedling, Lower Bavaria, we succeed in identifying a dairying economy at this time. Compound-specific lipid radiocarbon dates are then combined with other samples to provide a formal estimate for the duration of activity at Riedling and the first Bayesian chronological model for the Cham culture as a whole. Although data are currently not fine-grained enough to distinguish between competing models for site permanence, we suggest that the Cham culture pattern fits into a wider central European trend of greater mobility and economic flexibility in the pre-Corded Ware horizon, concluding that key economic strategies previously associated with ‘steppe invasions’ were already present in the preceding centuries. Finally, the demonstrated use of cups for milk-based products, as opposed to alcoholic drinks as previously suggested, leads us to propose possible alternative uses and users for these items.

Patterns of spread and adoption of millet agriculture along the eastern rim of the Tibetan Plateau: Archaeobotanical evidence from Houzidong, Southwest China (4200–4000 cal. BP)

The spread of domesticated crops has commonly occurred alongside broad patterns of long- and short-distance human movements and culture contact across regions. While exchange across Eurasia along the so-called Silk Road has been much discussed, recent work has revealed increasingly more evidence for early north-south contact along the eastern rim of the Tibetan Plateau. Main points of debate concern the timing and direction of the spread of agriculture and domesticated crops. This paper contributes to these discussions by presenting new data from macrobotanical remains and phytoliths from Houzidong in southwest Sichuan, a Neolithic site on the eastern rim of the Tibetan Plateau. The results show that the main crops during the late Neolithic (4200–4000 cal. BP) were foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), with a small amount of rice (Oryza sativa), but that agriculture was overall not a major focus. Rather, the subsistence at Houzidong like at other sites in the region was highly diverse, relying on gathering, hunting, and small-scale cultivation with considerable crop diversity aimed at minimizing the impact of potential crop failure. This paper shows that subsistence practices differed markedly between sites, local populations exploiting the rich natural resources in the respective ecological niches in various ways. We argue that the wide variety of food sources available in southwest China allowed people to mitigate risk but also made them more receptive to new food sources such as plant crops, experimenting with them and adding them to their portfolio. Similar patterns can be seen in the adoption and adaptation of other outside influences with each community picking and choosing what suited them best, thus creating the rich and varied patchwork of highly localized cultural phenomena that came to characterize southwest China.